The never type in TypeScript
In this article, I want to share my perspective to the topic of never type in TypeScript. It offers deep insight but from a different viewpoint. A perspective where one can grasp things on a higher level without delving too much into the extreme details. Others have already provided this deep insight very well in other articles and answered it in numerous StackOverflow responses.
In certain sections of the article, I will discuss some edge cases and limitations of the never type in TypeScript. These examples should be considered as additional information to the TypeScript documentation.
At the end of the article, you will find an interesting reference to another article to the never type. Both articles, this and the reference, comprehensively cover the subject. Additionally, in this article, I frequently refer to Stackoverflow and the TypeScript documentation.
Typesetting conventions
^?
In all the code examples, I use the ”// ^?” markup format, also known as twoSlashQuery to show the expected type in the TypeScript Playground, making it easier to understand the compiler’s expected type.
The never type
The greatly underestimated and often overlooked never type is a core Type in the TypeScript type hierarchy. TypeScript itself says: “The never type represents the type of values that never occur.” Even though it is said to never appear, it is omnipresent. The never type holds the same significance as the other types we know from TypeScript, with the difference that it has no value or cannot take one, and therefore stands at the very bottom of the hierarchy.
The never type is a powerful Type that helps us build stable, predictable, and controllable applications at the type level.
The never type can result from an implicit or explicit behavior
Before diving deeper into the never type, I want to address two points that we will explore further in this article. Essentially, it’s about when one is confronted with the never type.
Implicit: TypeScript uses ‘never’ when it cannot find a matching type for a value. This occurs, for example, in cases where the code cannot be narrowed down to any other specific type.
Explicit: As developers, we can use ‘never’ to intentionally control type flows, for example, in libraries
Firstly, if TypeScript cannot do anything with a type or cannot narrow it down to a type value (for example, string, number, array), it becomes a never type. This can happen implicitly from the TypeScript compiler without us having to do anything directly. Secondly, as a library/utils developer, one can explicitly create a never to consciously direct and control the flow of one or more types. In most cases, one is confronted with the first scenario.
When the never type results from implicit behavior
When throwing an error, the never Type is in play
You don’t have to be a library/utils developer to encounter the never type. It can quickly happen that TypeScript narrows your value to never. In our first real-world example, it’s not immediately apparent that we have created a return type of never | string. Where did the never go?
const generateUuid = (uuid: string | undefined) => {
if (typeof uuid === 'undefined') {
throw new Error('uuid must be defined');
}
return uuid + Math.random();
};
const uuid = generateUuid('name');
// ^? stringTypeScript: Because never is a subtype of every type, it is always omitted from union types and it is ignored in function return type inference as long as there are other types being returned
When we break down the function generateUuid to examine it in detail, we can confirm and prove the statement from TypeScript. If we remove everything out in the code and leave only the exception, the return type of the function is never. This means that we can confirm the statement from the TypeScript documentation. Since we haven’t created any other return types, it remains the never type.
It is always omitted from union types, and it is ignored in function return type inference as long as other types are being returned.
Simple we can say: if you have apple and nothing (never), apple will remain and if you have nothing, you have nothing.
const generateUuid = (uuid: string | undefined) => {
throw new Error('uuid must be defined');
};
const uuid = generateUuid('name');
// ^? neverWhen we return some value, the return type becomes a string, and the actual statement from the TypeScript documentation is 100% correct. The critical point in our example is the throw. This leads to an exception, which ultimately results in a never. However, with another return type string return uuid + Math.random(), the never is ignored. It is important to read the documentation instead of making assumptions.
const generateUuid = (uuid: string | undefined) => {
if (typeof uuid === 'undefined') {
throw new Error('uuid must be defined');
}
return uuid + Math.random();
};
const uuid = generateUuid('name');
// ^? stringKeep in mind: It’s a common misconception that the never type is only returned when no value is passed to generateUuid(). However, as repeatedly mentioned in the TypeScript documentation, the never type is omitted as soon as another type is returned.
Passing no value to generateUuid(...) will not result in a never type; instead, it will produce a string type. TypeScript’s default behavior does not include dynamic static analysis; it conducts static analysis at compile time. There is, however, a dynamic approach using conditional types, but that topic is separate.
const uuid = generateUuid();
// ^? stringEdge-Cases and limitation for the never type in function declarations
As in any language, there are edge cases in TypeScript as well. In our example generateUuid, I used a function expression instead of a function declaration. The return type behaves slightly differently in function declaration.
Function expression
const f = function () {
throw new Error('error');
};
const result = f();
// ^? neverFunction declaration
function h() {
throw new Error('error');
}
const result = h();
// ^? voidStackoverflow: The difference is that ‘f’ is function expressions, where ‘h’ is a function declaration. When a function is throw-only, it gets the type never if it’s an expression, and void if it’s a declaration
Practical use case for the never type
There are two more scenarios where one might encounter the never type during development. First, in a switch statement and second, in an if-else where in both cases Union Types are gradually narrowed down, which can ultimately end in a never type because there is nothing left to resolve.
The saveVehicle example is an extended outcome of a discussion with Alexander Regier during my Meetup talk.
type Car = { type: 'car'; fuel: number };
type Aircraft = { type: 'aircraft'; fuel: number };
type Bicycle = { type: 'bicycle'; fuel?: null };
type Vehicle = Car | Bicycle | Aircraft;In the next example, the meaning and benefit of the never type becomes very clear. In our next code example, we have combined the union types Car, Aircraft and Bicycle into a single type Vehicle. In our switch statement, the individual union types are gradually narrowed down. As you can see, in the default case of the switch statement, an error is thrown because Bicycle has not yet been handled.
async function saveVehicle(vehicle: Vehicle) {
const type = vehicle.type;
switch (type) {
case 'car':
await DB.save(type, vehicle.fuel * 32.5 /** tax **/);
// ^? number
break;
case 'aircraft':
await DB.save(type, vehicle.fuel * 0 /** tax **/);
// ^? number
break;
default:
// ✅ This is good and expected, as the code cannot be compiled.
// Error: Type 'Bicycle' is not assignable to type 'never'.
const foo: never = vehicle;
// ^? Bicycle
break;
}
}We want to be informed by the TypeScript compiler when one of the union types has not been handled.
This is good and expected, as the code cannot be compiled. As soon as Bicycle is also narrowed down, the error disappears because the type of Vehicle falls back to never in the default case. This allows never to be assigned to itself, which means that all cases have been handled correctly. This technique ensures that we do not forget any of the vehicles.
The next example is not such a good example and should not be used in this form. The difference to the above example is minimal but would have serious consequences. The code can be compiled, although we forgot to handle the type Bicycle. Although the first example (see above) is what we want, in both examples an exception (error) should be thrown in the default or else case so that we can catch this at runtime and log it if necessary.
async function saveVehicle(vehicle: Vehicle) {
const { type } = vehicle;
if (type === 'car') {
await DB.save(type, vehicle.fuel * 32.5 /** tax **/);
// ^? number
} else if (type === 'aircraft') {
await DB.save(type, vehicle.fuel * 0 /** tax **/);
// ^? number
} else {
// ⛔️ This is not good because the code can be compiled although we forget to handle the Bicycle type
// No error!
const foo = vehicle;
// ^? Bicycle
}
}An exception, for example throwing an error, in the browser is a never in TypeScripts at compile time, and code sections that are unreachable or not can be narrow it down in a switch statement or an if-else will end up in a never. It’s all quite logical when you think about it. The never type is a useful tool; it helps us detect incorrect behavior in the code before it happens in the browser.
Infinite Loops and ‘never’
After discussing many aspects of the never type, the last implicit example are loops and never. So, I will keep this brief. The return type after an infinite loop, from a function, always results in a never.
const loop1 = function () {
while (true) {}
};
const resutl = loop1();
// ^? never
const loop2 = () => {
for (;;) {}
};
const result = loop2();
// ^? neverOne could now assume that by using loops such as while(true) or for(;;) the type never is retained as the return type even if a valid value is returned directly after the loop. However, this is not the case. The behaviour corresponds to the same of a throw new Error(’…’). It is an implicit behaviour and even not a dynamic behaviour at compile time.
const loop1 = function () {
while (true) {}
return 'Hello World';
};
const resutl = loop1();
// ^? stringThe following code isn’t part of the article, but from my own experience, I can say it’s not great to have question marks in your head. You might be wondering in what situations one would use an infinite loop without crashing the runtime (Browser, Node, Bun, Deno). A self-contained functional unit you could, for example, wait every {n} seconds in a while loop to output the date. The possibilities here are limitless.
const clock = async function () {
while (true) {
await new Promise((resolve) => {
console.log(new Date().toString());
setTimeout(resolve, 1000);
});
}
};
clock(); // logs asynchronously the date every 1000ms
// ... do something
// ... do something
// ... do somethingIt’s the small, unassuming details
It is clear from the TypeScript documentation about the never type in which cases it can lead to a never, but my experience has shown that not much attention is paid to the small details (documentation).
TypeScript: Because never is a subtype of every type, it is always omitted from union types and is ignored in function return type inference as long as there are other types being returned
Indeed, never can arise or be ignored from Union Types or from the return type of a function. As you may have noticed, our examples are around functions. If we executed the code examples not within a function but in a .ts file, this would lead to unreachable-code. Essentially, it’s almost the same, with the small but significant difference that never is a type one can work with on type-level, and unreachable code is just a statement from the TypeScript compiler that does not lead to an error.
Edge Cases, Loops, and the ‘never’
The never type represents impossible values in TypeScript. However, if values can be modified at runtime in ways the compiler can’t predict, guaranteeing these impossible values never occur becomes technically challenging.
TypeScript leaves the type in the state it would be if it weren’t never. That’s why the return value in loop1 is void and not never, because the Infinity object hangs on the global window object and could theoretically be overwritten, like window.Infinity = 1, making the loop finite.
const loop1 = () => {
for (let i = 0; i < Infinity; i++) {}
};
const result = loop1();
// ^? voidWhen the never type results from explicit behavior
The explicit creation of the never type can happen in several ways. Firstly, when we write our utility types or when we work as library developers. Strictly speaking, utility types are generics.
TypeScript: Because never is a subtype of every type, it is always omitted from union types and is ignored in function return type inference as long as there are other types being returned
Secondly, it happens automatically when we use the built-in utility types (Exclude, Extract, Omit, more Utility-Types) from TypeScript. Let’s make a little excursion into the world of conditional types and generics to understand the behavior of the never type in this context.
What we see as a developer when we deal with Utility-Types:
// built-in utility type in TS
type Exclude<T, U> = T extends U ? never : T;
type Foo = Exclude<string | number | boolean, boolean>;
// ^? string, number
type Bar = Extract<string | number | boolean, boolean>;
// ^? booleanWhat TypeScript sees and does:
In the first step TypeScript distribute the types. This means that string | number | boolean will be distributed over the Exclude Utility-Type.
type Foo = Exclude<string, boolean> | Exclude<number, boolean> | Exclude<boolean, boolean>;
// ^? string | number | neverThe second step TypeScript fills the placeholder T and U with the passed types.
type Foo =
| (string extends boolean ? never : string) // resolved to string
| (number extends boolean ? never : number) // resolved to number
| (boolean extends boolean ? never : boolean); // resolved to never
// ^? string | number | neverIn the third step the conditions will be resolved so that only the types are left, including the never type.
type Foo = string | number | never;
// ^? string | number | neverIn the last step, the never will be ignored from the Union Types
type Foo = string | number;
// ^? string | numberI just wanted to illustrate that the never type disappears or ignored as already quoted several times from the TypeScript documentation. But basically, it is not the conditional types in the generic that makes the magic. The following example sums it up and confirms the TypeScript documentation once again. The never type is omitted from union types.
type Bar = string | boolean | number | never;
// ^? string | boolean | numberTypeScript tries to reflect the behavior of JavaScript as much as possible
TypeScript has special operators that are deeply embedded in the language and its syntax. This special syntax can be used as a tool to fulfill a specific purpose of a developer. An example of a special operator is the keyof operator, but before we look at the details we should consider the following example from the core of JavaScript.
const result = Object.keys({}); // logs: []The counterpart to Object.keys is the keyof from TypeScript, which can be used to get the keys of an object at compile time.
type Result = keyof {};
// ^? neverIf we apply a keyof to an empty object type in TypeScript we get never. The same applies to JavaScript. In both cases an empty object cannot contain anything.
As we’ve learned in the article, TypeScript essentially tries to mirror the behavior of JavaScript at compile time on a type level.
// TypeScript compiler
type StringKeys = keyof { name: 'Tim'; country: 'Belgium' };
// ^? name | country
// JavaScript in the Browser
const someString = { name: 'Tim', country: 'Belgium' };
Object.keys(someString); // logs: ['name', 'country']Variables, Functions, and the ‘never’ Type
Variable assignment and the ‘never’ Type
When we try to assign a value to the ‘never’ type, for example during a variable declaration, it behaves like a white hole (White Hole - Wikipedia - the opposite of a black hole). It lets nothing in. Every other type that wants to go to the other side (e.g., value1) will rejected. Simply put, the values 1, Hello World and true are not subtypes of ‘never’.
TypeScript: The ‘never’ type is a subtype of, and assignable to, every type; however, no type is a subtype of, or assignable to, ‘never’, (except ‘never’ itself). Even ‘any’ isn’t assignable to ‘never’
// Error: type number is not assignable to type never
const value1: never = 1;
// ^? never
// Error: type string is not assignable to type never
const value2: never = 'Hello World';
// ^? never
// Error: type boolean is not assignable to type never
const value3: never = true;
// ^? never
const anyValue: any = 1;
// Error: Type any is not assignable to type never
const value4: never = anyValue;
// ^? never
// correct, never is assignable to never
const value4: never = (() => {
// ^? never
throw new Error('');
})();Function arguments and assignability of variables to the never type
In the example above we have looked at a very theoretical and not practice-orientated variant of what happens when you try to assign values to a never type. In reality, and in most cases, this compile-time error occurs when you pass the return values from one function to another function. This is the only difference to the example above.
function canTakeArg1(foo: unknown | string | number | boolean) {
return 'Wycliffe';
}
const throwError1 = () => {
throw new Error('error');
};
// correct: never is a subtype of string or of every type
canTakeArg1(throwError1());Weird at first glance but it is a design decision from TypeScript
It’s not necessary to remember the next code examples in detail, but reading about it once helps our brain to recall it more easily the next time.
If you ever encounter one of these cases (1, 2, or 3) and wonder why in case 1 you receive a boolean and in another case 2 a never instead of the expected boolean (true), and you are puzzled why you can circumvent it in case 3 by using a so-called non-naked type, then do not be surprised. This is a design decision and not a bug in the TypeScript compiler.
Nurbol Alpysbayev: You are distributing an empty union aka ‘never’ and this gives a result of the distribution of an empty union (aka ‘never’): that is another empty union! Completely makes sense
// Cases 1, 2, and 3
// (1) Conditional Type
type Foo = never extends never ? true : false;
// ^? true
// (2) Generic with naked Conditional Type
type Bar<T> = T extends never ? true : false;
// not `true` as expected but **never**!
type Baz = Bar<never>;
// ^? never
// (3) Generic with none-naked Conditional Type
type Lorum<T> = [T] extends [never] ? true : false;
type Ipsum = Lorum<never>;
// ^? trueExploring other(s) perspectives of the ‘never’ type can be useful
Unfortunately, I can’t cover everything about the never type in this article. That would exceed the scope of the topic. I intended to show and share my perspective on things. Many great articles on the web have already explored other aspects of the never type.
- Here is a really interesting article that I find very insightful from Zhenghao’s Blog about the never Type
- A sophisticated example of error handling with the never type, which I discovered several days after publishing the initial version of this article, is presented in Stefan Baumgartner’s article. His article, titled The
nevertype and error handling in TypeScript, offers deep insights into the subject.”
Conclusion
In conclusion, we can say that we encounter the never in two different ways. Once implicitly, when TypeScript is not able to determine a type, and explicitly, when we as developers want to consciously control the type in utility types. We can also note that the never type is always removed from union types and ignored in functions as long as other types are returned. There are edge cases here and there. You don’t need to memorize these, but you do need to be aware of them.
Thanks
Many thanks to Maina Wycliffe and Tim Deschryver for reviewing this article. I appreciate your time and effort. I am grateful for your support.
You can find me on Twitter, GitHub, LinkedIn and XING. I’m looking forward to connecting with you and sharing our knowledge. Let’s make the world a sweeter place together!